The Maratha Empire, founded by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, rose as India’s dominant power after the Mughals. Originating as a regional force in Maharashtra, it expanded into a pan-Indian confederacy, controlling much of the subcontinent by the mid-18th century.
Formally, the empire lasted from 1674 to 1818 — beginning with Shivaji’s coronation and ending with the defeat of Peshwa Bajirao II by the British East India Company.
At its peak in the 1750s–1760s, the Maratha Empire stretched across much of India. Weakened after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and internal divisions, the Marathas revived briefly before ultimately succumbing to the British in the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818).
Maratha Empire: Origins and Foundation
The Maratha Empire originated under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1630–1680), who envisioned Swarajya (self-rule) in the Deccan. Disturbed by the constant warfare and exploitation under the Deccan sultanates and the Mughals, Shivaji rallied the Marathas to establish an independent Hindu kingdom.
Through the capture of forts, use of guerrilla warfare, and formation of a navy, he laid the foundations of the Maratha state, formally marked by his coronation at Raigad in 1674.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1630-1680)
- Born in 1630 at Shivneri Fort into the Bhonsle clan, son of Shahaji Bhonsle (a Maratha general) and Jijabai.
- Propounded the ideal of “Hindavi Swarajya” (self-rule of the people) with political, economic, military, and cultural dimensions.
- Coronation (1674): Crowned Chhatrapati at Raigad Fort with Vedic rituals, formally establishing the Maratha Empire with Raigad as its capital.
- Military innovations:
- Built a strong fort network (over 300 forts, e.g., Raigad, Pratapgad, Sindhudurg) as the backbone of defense.
- Pioneered guerrilla warfare (ganimi kava) using speed, terrain, and surprise raids.
- Raised a disciplined army with light cavalry and effective infantry.
- Navy (1657): Created India’s first systematic navy to secure Konkan coast; built coastal forts like Sindhudurg, fleet operated up to Goa and Muscat (Oman).
- Administration & reforms:
- Introduced Ashta Pradhan Mandal (Council of Eight Ministers) for efficient governance.
- Implemented a revenue system based on land survey, which later influenced Mughal and British practices.
- Collected chauth (25%) and sardeshmukhi (10%) from neighboring states as tribute.
- Culture & society:
- Promoted Marathi and Sanskrit for administration and culture (instead of Persian).
- Respected religious freedom; protected temples, but also employed Muslims in his navy and administration.
- Encouraged regional traditions and Hindu cultural revival.
- Key Battles of Shivaji:
- Battle of Pratapgad (1659): Defeated and killed Afzal Khan (Bijapur general) → major early victory.
- Battle of Kolhapur (1659): Defeated Bijapur army under Rustam Zaman → strengthened Maratha hold in south Konkan.
- Battle of Pavan Khind (1660): Baji Prabhu Deshpande’s heroic defense enabled Shivaji’s escape from Siddi Jauhar’s siege.
- Siege of Purandar (1665): Forced to sign Treaty of Purandar with Mughal general Jai Singh II, ceding forts.
- Escape from Agra (1666): Not a battle, but a key political episode against Aurangzeb.
- Battle of Sinhagad (1670): Tanaji Malusare recaptured the fort from Mughals; Shivaji mourned him as the “lion of Sinhagad.”
- Battle of Surat (Raids 1664 & 1670): Raided the wealthy Mughal port city, asserting Maratha strength.
- Southern Campaign (Dakshin Digvijaya, 1676–79): Extended Maratha influence into Karnataka, defeating Bijapur and local chieftains.
Administrative System of the Marathas
Central Administration – Ashtapradhan (Council of Eight Ministers)
- Peshwa / Pantpradhan: Prime Minister; head of overall administration and revenue.
- Amatya / Mazumdar: Finance Minister; managed state accounts and audits.
- Sacheev / Shurnavis: Secretary; handled royal correspondence, drafting, and record-keeping.
- Mantri: Interior Minister; managed intelligence, internal affairs, and royal household.
- Senapati: Commander-in-Chief of armed forces.
- Sumant / Dabir: Foreign Minister; managed relations, treaties, and diplomacy.
- Nyayadhish: Chief Justice; administered civil and criminal justice.
- Panditrao: Religious Affairs Minister; supervised charities, rituals, and religious grants.
Please Note: The Ashtapradhan Mandal was introduced by Shivaji, but over time its importance declined, with the Peshwa emerging as de facto head of administration (especially after Shahu’s reign).
Key Administrative Features
- Non-hereditary posts: Offices were based on merit and transferable, not hereditary (at least initially under Shivaji).
- Direct revenue system: Abolished intermediary deshmukhs/middlemen; appointed Kamvishdars (Brahmin officers) for tax collection.
- Village-level autonomy: Local affairs managed by Panchayats; ensured continuity of grassroots governance.
- Professional bureaucracy: Revenue, records, and audits maintained systematically.
- Military pensions: Provided for soldiers, widows, and dependents, reflecting welfare orientation.
- Use of Marathi & Sanskrit: Replaced Persian in administration and record-keeping.
Revenue System: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi
Chauth (¼ = 25%)
- 25% of land revenue.
- Tribute/protection tax collected from territories not under direct Maratha rule.
- In exchange, Marathas guaranteed protection from raids and external threats.
- Imposed on Mughal provinces, Rajput states, and other neighboring regions.
- Major source of military financing and expansion.
Sardeshmukhi (1/10 = 10%)
- 10% additional levy, often on top of Chauth (total 35%).
- Claimed as Maratha hereditary right (sardeshmukh = regional overlord).
- Collected directly from cultivators/landowners in Maratha-controlled areas.
- Provided a stable revenue base, unlike the fluctuating chauth.
Maratha Empire after Shivaji (1680–1720)
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj passed away in 1680 at Raigad Fort, leaving behind a strong foundation for Swarajya. His demise was followed by a succession struggle between his sons, Sambhaji and Rajaram.
Sambhaji Maharaj (1680–1689)
- Eldest son of Shivaji; crowned at Raigad in 1681 after a brief succession conflict.
- Heroic resistance to Mughals: Fought Aurangzeb’s massive Deccan campaign.
- Military achievements:
- Defeated Mughal forces at Burhanpur (1681), plundering the wealthy city.
- Fought pitched battles against Mughal generals including Khan Jahan Bahadur.
- Allied with the Sultan of Golconda and the Portuguese of Goa at times to counter Mughal pressure.
- Repelled Siddis of Janjira and Portuguese threats to the Konkan.
- Patron of learning: Authored Budhbhushanam (in Sanskrit); encouraged arts and scholarship.
- Martyrdom: Captured at Sangameshwar (1689) by Mughal forces; brutally tortured and executed by Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam or betray his people. Remembered as a defender of dharma and Swarajya.
Rajaram Maharaj (1689–1700)
- Shivaji’s younger son; crowned after Sambhaji’s death.
- Shifted capital to Gingee Fort (Tamil Nadu) for strategic defense.
- Generals like Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav led brilliant guerrilla campaigns that bled Aurangzeb’s army.
- Though Aurangzeb occupied Raigad, the Marathas remained unconquered.
- Died in 1700; succeeded by his wife Tarabai as regent.
Tarabai’s Regency (1700–1707)
- Acted as regent for her minor son Shivaji II.
- A skilled leader, she effectively coordinated Maratha resistance.
- By Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, the Mughals were exhausted, having failed to crush the Marathas despite two decades of war.
Shahu vs. Tarabai (1707–1714)
- After Aurangzeb’s death, Mughals released Shahu (Shivaji’s grandson, son of Sambhaji) to weaken the Marathas.
- Civil war between Shahu and Tarabai followed.
- Battle of Khed (1707): Shahu defeated Tarabai with the support of Maratha sardars like Balaji Vishwanath.
- Shahu established himself at Satara as Chhatrapati, while Tarabai ruled a separate line at Kolhapur.
Rise of the Peshwas (1713–1720)
- 1713: Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa, who reorganized the Maratha polity.
- Strengthened central authority, negotiated alliances with powerful Maratha sardars, and redefined the confederacy model.
- 1719: Marathas, supporting the Sayyid Brothers in Delhi, secured imperial grants (farmans) allowing them to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from six Mughal provinces of the Deccan.
- 1720: Death of Balaji Vishwanath. His son Baji Rao I became Peshwa, ushering in the era of rapid Maratha expansion.
Expansion under the Peshwas (1720–1818)
Peshwa Baji Rao I (1720–1740) – The Great Expansion
- Fought over 40 battles, never lost a single battle in 20-year career.
- Advocated striking at the Mughal core — “Strike at the roots and the tree will fall.”
- Territorial Expansion:
- Conquered Malwa (1728–1738).
- Established Maratha presence in Gujarat.
- Advanced influence into Bundelkhand.
- Reached the outskirts of Delhi (1737).
- Major Campaigns:
- Battle of Palkhed (1728): Defeated Nizam of Hyderabad with swift cavalry movements — classic example of Maratha mobility.
- Malwa Campaign (1728–1738): Culminated in the Battle of Bhopal (1737), where Marathas defeated a Mughal–Nizam–Rajput coalition.
- Battle of Delhi (1737): Marathas raided Mughal capital, showcasing their dominance.
- Outcome: Mughal emperor ceded Malwa to Marathas and paid an indemnity of 5 million rupees.
Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao (1740–1761)
- Balaji Baji Rao, also known as Nanasaheb, succeeded his father as Peshwa at just nineteen.
- Expanded Maratha power to its maximum territorial extent.
- Marathas became the paramount power in India, extracting tribute from Bengal, Awadh, and Punjab.
- 1752: Mughal emperor signed a treaty making the Marathas protectors of Delhi.
- 1758: Marathas captured Delhi, Lahore, Attock, and Peshawar, driving Afghans across the Khyber Pass.
- Setback: The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) against Ahmad Shah Abdali resulted in a catastrophic defeat; thousands of Maratha soldiers and leaders perished.
Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761)
Background and Causes
- Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Motivation: Invaded India to avenge the expulsion of his son Timur Shah from Punjab (1758) by Marathas.
- Maratha Response: Peshwa’s cousin Sadashivrao Bhau, with young Vishwasrao (Peshwa’s heir), led a massive army northward (approx. 70,000 troops + camp followers).
- Alliances: Abdali allied with Najib-ud-Daulah (Rohillas) and Shuja-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Awadh). Rajputs and Jats largely stayed aloof due to strained Maratha relations.
Course of Battle
- Siege Phase: Marathas besieged in Panipat for ~2 months; Afghans successfully cut off their supply lines.
- Battle Day (14 Jan 1761):
- Fierce fighting; initially Marathas had the upper hand.
- Afghan reserves and superior logistics turned the tide.
- Decisive Afghan victory by evening.
- Casualties: Estimated 60,000-1,00,000+ killed; included key Maratha leaders like Sadashivrao Bhau, Vishwasrao, and Ibrahim Khan Gardi (artillery chief).
Consequences
- Collapse of Maratha Northern Power: Lost control over Punjab, Delhi, and much of North India.
- Massive Loss of Leadership: Heavy casualties of senior commanders created a leadership vacuum.
- Exposed Confederacy Weakness: Showed lack of unity and poor supply management.
- Power Vacuum in North India: Mughals remained weak; Jats, Sikhs, and later the British East India Company filled the gap.
- Recovery Timeline: Marathas gradually revived under Peshwa Madhavrao I and Mahadji Scindia (Shinde); Delhi was recaptured in 1771.
Peshwa Madhavrao I (1761–1772) – Recovery after Panipat
- Took charge at age 16 after Panipat disaster.
- Restored Maratha authority in Deccan, Gujarat, and Malwa.
- Defeated Hyder Ali of Mysore, Nizam of Hyderabad, and curbed internal dissent.
- Regarded as one of the most capable Peshwas who stabilized the empire post-Panipat.
Later Peshwas and Decline (1772–1818)
- Mahadji Scindia (Scindia of Gwalior): Recovered Delhi (1771), became de facto ruler of northern India.
- Holkars of Indore: Rose as strong military power in Malwa.
- Gaekwads of Baroda: Consolidated in Gujarat.
- Bhonsles of Nagpur: Expanded eastward into Odisha and parts of Central India.
- Confederacy Weakness: Semi-autonomous chiefs often pursued independent policies, weakening unity.
- Anglo–Maratha Wars:
- First (1775–1782): Ended in stalemate (Treaty of Salbai).
- Second (1803–1805): British defeated Scindias and Bhonsles; Marathas lost key territories.
- Third (1817–1818): Final defeat of Peshwa Baji Rao II; Maratha Confederacy dissolved; territories annexed by British.
The Maratha Confederacy System (Post-1750)
- Peshwas (Pune): Central authority, though weakened after Panipat.
- Scindias (Gwalior & Central India): Dominated northern India and Delhi politics.
- Holkars (Indore & Malwa): Controlled Malwa and were key military power.
- Gaekwads (Baroda & Gujarat): Consolidated Maratha rule in western India.
- Bhonsles (Nagpur & Eastern India): Controlled Vidarbha, parts of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
Maratha–Rajput Relations
Early Period: Cooperation and Alliance
- Common Opposition: Both Rajputs and Marathas resisted the religious and centralizing policies of Aurangzeb.
- Shared Ideals: Shivaji’s vision of Hindavi Swarajya and later the idea of Hindupadpadshahi resonated with several Rajput rulers.
- Alliances: Occasional cooperation, such as during Shahu’s reign, when Marathas sought Rajput support to balance Mughal power.
Deterioration Phase (1720s–1750s)
- Succession Disputes: Marathas intervened in internal conflicts, e.g., Jaipur and Marwar succession wars.
- Marwar Crisis (1750–1772): Rivalry between Ram Singh and Vijay Singh, with Maratha involvement.
- Jaipur Affairs: Conflicts between Ishwar Singh and Madho Singh, where Marathas exerted influence.
- Economic Pressure: Demands for chauth (25%) and sardeshmukhi (10%) placed a heavy burden on Rajput states, creating resentment.
- Military Interventions: Maratha troops were stationed in Rajput territories at times, which eroded local autonomy.
Region-Specific Dynamics
- Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Kota: At various times, they came under Maratha influence and paid tribute.
- Udaipur (Mewar): Negotiated to maintain relative autonomy but still faced Maratha pressure.
- Jaisalmer and Bikaner: Remained largely outside Maratha tributary control; preserved independence due to distance, desert terrain, and limited strategic interest for Marathas.
- Overall: Rajputana was never annexed or directly administered by the Marathas, unlike Malwa or Gujarat.
Key Issues in Relations
- Revenue Extraction: Heavy tribute drained Rajput finances.
- Political Autonomy: Repeated interference in succession and governance weakened Rajput sovereignty.
- Fragmentation: Different Rajput factions allied with competing powers (Marathas, Mughals, or later the British).
Impact on Rajputana
- Economic Drain: Continuous tribute payments strained state resources.
- Political Fragmentation: Internal disputes worsened due to outside interference.
- Shift Toward British: Frustration with Maratha demands eventually pushed Rajput states to seek British support.
- Treaty System: Between 1803 and 1823, nearly all major Rajput states (Jaipur, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Kota, Bikaner, Jaisalmer) entered into subsidiary alliances with the British, formally ending Maratha influence in Rajputana.
Conclusion
The Maratha Empire represented the last major indigenous attempt to create a pan-Indian empire before British colonization. From Shivaji’s foundational vision of Swarajya to the confederacy’s peak under Bajirao I, the Marathas demonstrated remarkable military innovation, administrative efficiency, and cultural revival.
However, structural weaknesses in the confederacy system, overextension during the 1750s-1760s expansion, and the catastrophic defeat at Panipat ultimately led to their decline.
The empire’s legacy lies in proving that indigenous Indian powers could successfully challenge foreign domination and establish effective governance systems, providing crucial inspiration for later independence movements
